Existing power delivery solutions limit the use of these devices to ∼13,500 cm 3 for continuous operation ( 3). All of these approaches suffer from power drop-offs as the device moves away from the power transmitting antenna ( 11). Remaining fundamental limitations of wireless and battery-free systems relate to the nature of power delivery, which in most cases relies on magnetic resonant coupling ( 9) and mid-field ( 5) or far-field power delivery ( 10). This methodology allows for previously impossible behavioral experiments leveraging the modern optogenetic toolkit. With approaches to digitally manage power delivery to optoelectronic components, we enable two classes of applications: transcranial optogenetic activation millimeters into the brain (validated using motor cortex stimulation to induce turning behaviors) and wireless optogenetics in arenas of more than 1 m 2 in size. Here, we implement highly miniaturized, capacitive power storage on the platform of wireless subdermal implants. Power delivery constraints also sharply curtail operational arena size.
This can cause tissue displacement, neuronal damage, and scarring. Yet current devices using wireless power delivery require invasive stimulus delivery, penetrating the skull and disrupting the blood–brain barrier. Current-generation wireless devices are sufficiently small, thin, and light for subdermal implantation, offering some advantages over tethered methods for naturalistic behavior. Wireless, battery-free, and fully subdermally implantable optogenetic tools are poised to transform neurobiological research in freely moving animals.
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